The connection between the falcon and Horus seems indissoluble when thinking about Egyptian divinities. This is what the ancient Egyptians conveyed, and we, as observers of their monumental structures and details, have received it. One of the most visited sites in Egypt is the Temple of Horus at Edfu, located on the banks of the Nile and built during the Ptolemaic period. In addition to all the representations of the deity found there, the granite statue in the form of a falcon with the double crown of Egypt situated in the courtyard that welcomes visitors to the first hypostyle hall is a majestic example of this millennia-old connection (Pajares Sotillo, 2019, p. 18).
The etymology of Horus (Ḥr) seems to derive from the root to be far away, so the god is known as the Distant One, He Who Is Far Away. This is relevant for a celestial deity that, associated with the falcon, completes a circle of ideas: the ability to catch its prey by falling from the sky, its majesty and flight, in addition to the association with solar and lunar aspects. Under these premises, kings identified themselves with Horus since ancient times and used it as the basis for monarchical legitimacy (Alegre, 2017, p.66). Although other gods also assumed the form of a falcon, without doubt Horus is its greatest representative, as reflected in Middle Kingdom religious texts where we read: «I am Horus the falcon (bʿik)» (Mercer, 1942, p.97).
Other studies propose that the divine name Horus comes from the substantivized adjective Ḥry, which means the one who is above, or the one who is over, relying on a Text of the Sarcophagi that says: «Falcon, my son Horus, sit in this land of your father Osiris under this name of yours of Falcon who is above (or over) the battlements of the house of He whose name is hidden (the god Amun)» (Polo Molinero, 1942, p. 406). This last hypothesis is very interesting because it would explain the use of the falcon in the serekhs since Dynasty 0. The king's name differs from other individuals by being written inside a vertical rectangle composed of vertical lines at the bottom with space above where his name goes. This rectangular composition represents the façade of the palace. Additionally, kings received their Horus name when they took possession of the throne, which was different from the one given at birth.
Early Testimonies and Consolidation of His Image
The serekhs (fig. 2) are a source of information to understand this divine-royal connection. We must go back to the Nagada culture (4000-3000 BC) to see the first representations in which a falcon appears on the serekh, which will be repeated more stylized throughout Egyptian history on different supports. In origin, little of these images can be interpreted as religious according to some authors (Mercer, 1942, pp. 10-11). But they do guide us in terms of the idea of legitimacy and power.
A late narrative such as that of Manetho collects that the first ruling dynasty was the Great Ennead of Heliopolis, with the exception that Ptah was its creator god. The last divine king was Horus. The Turin Papyrus, from the time of Ramses II, cites the gods who reigned, concluding this list with the 300-year reign of Horus. After them would be found the semi-divine Follower of Horus, and finally the dynasty of historical kings would begin (Mercer, 1942, pp. 16-17). We understand that prehistoric images of a falcon supported on the palace would have a solid meaning in terms of the second hypothesis of its name, using the falcon as a legitimizing vehicle for a dynasty descending from Horus's reign and in accordance with the Texts of the Sarcophagi.
Horus is not only linked to the origin of Egyptian monarchy both archaeologically and mythologically, but also to the conceptualization of the universe. With his epithet as the Lord of Heaven, his wings were identified with the firmament, his chest full of speckled feathers reminded one of clouds, and the celestial tones. In Ptolemaic times he was cited as: the venerable bird whose shadow is over the extensive land; Lord of the Two Lands under whose wings lies the circuit of heaven; the falcon that radiates light from its eyes, for these were identified as the sun and moon (Frankfort, 1976, pp. 61-62).
Theological Reconfiguration: From the Narmer Palette to The Pyramid Texts
In the first two dynasties, gods were represented in human or animal form. Horus appears for the first time in a hybrid image starting from the Third Dynasty. In the Old Kingdom he undergoes modifications, having different versions that coexist at the same time: Horus son of Isis, Horus the Elder, Horus on the Horizon, etc. (Alegre, 2017, p. 29). This is due to changing scenarios: shifting genealogies, different functions, processes of solarization or localism.
The famous Narmer Palette (fig. 1) shows the falcon perched on the papyrus flower and can be interpreted as: the falcon (king-god) has subjugated the land of the papyrus, for now he is the Horus king of a unified realm by force (Assmann, 2005, p. 40). For Horus's image to have the symbols that would endure throughout Egypt's history, such as protector of royalty and guarantor of this divine power, it is necessary for there to be an enemy in its origin. In Nagada III palettes appear pairs of animals facing each other, which could be precursors of Horus and Set. With Pharaoh Djer (First Dynasty), we see two distinct powers, as the queen's title reads: she who sees Horus and Seth. Although this does not directly imply a conflict, it speaks of a distinction probably referring to Upper and Lower Egypt. The first pharaoh of the Second Dynasty names himself as: the one who has pacified the Two Powers.
It is noteworthy that pharaohs like Peribsen substitute the falcon in the serekh with Set's canine image (fig. 3), possibly due to a break of the realm into two halves. But isn't Seth negative? In the Pyramid Texts, among hundreds of appearances of this god, he is only dangerous when the Osiris myth appears, identifying the deceased pharaoh with Osiris and his heir on the throne as Horus. This theological change in favor of a new legitimacy is confirmed from the Fifth Dynasty, directly pitting Horus against Set, but instead of a direct form as it could have been originally, the new narrative shows it as a conflict inherited from the previous generation: his father Osiris and his uncle Seth (Molinero Polo, 1998, pp. 426-428). This example will serve to understand mythological mobility and the variety of forms of Horus, in this case establishing the basis for his appearance in other of his forms as Harpocrates (Horus the child) later.
Conclusions
Horus is one of the most complex gods to study due to the multitude of his forms and meanings. The falcon is his most representative form. Isis, pregnant, tells Atum that a falcon is what she carries in her womb, and when Horus is born he takes flight (Armour, 2004, p.124). The reason for choosing the falcon remains unknown; we do not know if Horus was embodied by one of these birds or the entire species, whether it was temporary or permanent, or if all hypotheses are related (Frankfort 1976, p. 61). Nonetheless, we have traversed some of the main evidence to understand his image and its connection to the falcon, finding in him the basis for Egyptian legitimacy since the first pharaohs.
Bibliography:
Alegre, S. (2017). Gods, Myths and Rituals in Ancient Egypt. Dilema.
Armour, R. (2004). Gods and Myths of Ancient Egypt. Alianza Editorial.
Arroyo de la Fuente, A. (2021). The Myth of Osiris in Ancient Egypt: Meaning and Iconography. Glyphos.
Assmann, J. (2005). Egypt, History of a Sense. Abada.
Frankfort, H. (1976). Kings and Gods. Alianza.
Mercer, Samuel A. B. (1942). Horus: Royal God of Egypt. Society of Oriental Research.
Pajares Sotillo, S. (2019). The Temple of Horus at Edfu. Egyptology 2.0, 9.
Polo Molinero, M. A. (2003). Rulership and Conception of the Universe in the "Pyramid Texts" (PhD thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid).
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