Civitas et militas
Food, whether solid or liquid, is essential for any living being, so its acquisition is one of the main concerns when leaving a supply area behind, that is, an inhabited zone.
While the basic diet of most people who lived within Roman territory was the Mediterranean triad (cereals, oil, and wine; with wheat or barley being the main calorie source), there were complementary meals that could vary depending on the region where an individual found themselves (Costa and Casal, 2009:16).
External Supply
A legionary could consume between four thousand and six thousand calories a day due to the large amount of physical effort, so in order to mitigate physical and psychological weariness, the Roman state was responsible for supplying with generous quantities "to ensure the proper functioning of its army" (Fernández, 2019:121).
The basis of the diet consisted of consuming four or five modii (a measure of capacity for grains, equivalent to 8.75 liters) of wheat monthly per legionary, and double or triple for centurions and cavalrymen. Furthermore, while barley cultivation was practiced, its consumption was generally limited to animals and "savages" (the name Romans gave to all those who lived beyond their borders, without the current derogatory connotation), although also Vegetius in his work "Epitoma re militari" seems to indicate that it was a substitute for wheat, applying eating this cereal as disciplinary punishment (Vegetius, 2015:155) since with this cereal they fed the cavalrymen's equites (Coello, 1978:244) and barbarians.
The arrival of denarii to soldiers also meant acquiring products exported from other regions of the empire and distant lands: salted fish, garum from Hispania, cured meats, oysters from Vindolanda, wine and asparagus from Egypt (Baños et al., 2008:811,812).
Internal Supply
The meals in the daily life of a soldier were complemented with their own hunting-gathering and agricultural activities that they carried out both during times of peace as well as maneuvers.
Hunting, fishing, and gathering were fundamental in this regard: they aimed to cover all human needs; legumes and fruits are gathered, wine and vinegar or posca is made, and for animals, hay is collected. Additionally, agriculture near the defensive perimeter could be a recurring activity, as fields of cereals, legumes, and medicinal plant gardens have been found in Parma (Bosi et al., 2011:1629).
Livestock also had its place among the Roman legions, as a flock always completed their ranks both during times of peace and war. These animals were usually bovine, which meant utilizing resources beyond meat: milk, tendons, and leather, thus involving religious practices with these animals through sacrifice for subsequent consumption.
Hunting was a common activity. However, in both cases, the consumption of meat does not represent one of the main calorie sources in soldiers' diets, as the average is around 160 grams of meat per day. To maintain meat in good condition, techniques such as salting or converting it into sausages were used, which seemed very popular in Lucania. The hunting activity was also exploited by soldiers to consume foods that due to their social status were not easily acquired, like venison, although in practice, the hunted fauna depended on the geographical situation of the individual, so meats varied from rabbits to bears (Fernandez, 2019:122).
The gathering of other foods was the pinnacle of dietary variety for soldiers. As mentioned earlier, fruit collection near camps was an activity that appeared during Roman mobile campaigns, with figs being a clear example of this abundance during Julius Caesar's campaign in Africa (Valdés, 2017:224).
Cooking
Now that we have an anthology of ingredients, it is time to introduce ourselves into the kitchen. The temporal space covering breakfast and lunch was focused on military requirements (Valdés, 2017:283), therefore, it is at night when food for the next day and dinner are prepared.
Preparation took place in the contubernium, that is, the established living quarters in camps, for eight soldiers. Within each of these arrangements were stone grinders with which to grind wheat, which was then kneaded with yeast, olive oil, and spices. It was cooked on a portable stove or clibanus, resulting in bread that was divided into eight (one per person).
Flour was also used to make bucellatum, which were biscuits or, as some authors call them, "soldiers' bread," which was cooked twice. The double cooking of this food extended its "expiration date" at the cost of producing a very hard product (Déry, 1996:84). This fact led to such proto-biscuit having to be soaked in water or wine to soften it and eat it. Its small size and durability gave it great popularity as soldiers could carry them during maneuvers due to their easy and quick consumption.
The grain was also cooked into porridge or puls, which could be seasoned with pomegranates, honey, and garlic, and whose cooking took place in the same clibanus.
Dining Customs
The consumption of those five thousand calories was done in three meals: The first one, the ientaculum, consisted of very light foods such as cheese and cold cuts, being one of the few moments to drink water. Lunch or prandium, was another moment for a light meal, since the time of abundant food was dinner.
The consumption of wine was common among legions, specifically posca due to its affordable price, both in lower ranks of the army and in civilian popular strata. Posca was low-quality wine, specifically wine in an advanced state of oxidation. This was mixed with honey and aromatic herbs to improve its bitter taste, resulting in a drink rich in vitamin C, which prevents scurvy.
Among the consumption of other foods we find garum, which served as a complement for most meals. This was a sauce whose base were fermented fish guts.
Conclusions
While it is true that the exploitation of edible resources in territories creates and defines an indigenous palate, as well as a regional culinary culture, it is noteworthy that in subsequent barbarian migrations, new community members adapted to these customs to some extent. An example of this is the persistence of garum during the Middle Ages. Even today bread continues to persist as an inherent element for humans. This not only applies to tastes but also to those elements which are unpleasant for certain palates, with the clearest example being Seneca's reply to Pliny the Elder:
They are expensive fish guts! Don't you realize that it burns your stomach with its salty putrefaction?
Corcoran, 1963:204
Bibliography
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