"Manual labor? Me?" would be the question some monks might ask when asked to work for their sustenance. Indeed, there was a debate about whether monks should have to perform manual tasks in a monastery. For many of them, a monk should only dedicate himself to more spiritual tasks such as prayer or worship. However, Augustine of Hippo, a bishop from North Africa, did not see it that way. I invite you to learn what this bishop proposed through his work called De opere monachorum.
We will offer a brief explanation of the historical and religious context since every work does not arise out of nowhere and we will focus on the Manichaean view of manual labor, which was probably the source of the controversy about the compatibility between manual labor and contemplative life.
The Context of the Treatise De opere monachorum
Augustine of Hippo defends in De opere monachorum that, through work, monks can participate in God's creative and redemptive work, turning their daily activities into an act of worship. With his work, he attacks a group of monks who did not accept manual labor. But why did they look down on it?
Augustine of Hippo (354, Tagaste, Numidia —now Algeria— – 430) converted to Christianity in the year 386, influenced by his mother Monica, his friend Simplicianus, and Bishop Ambrose of Milan. His conversion was marked by reading the life of Saint Anthony Abbot and the Epistle to the Romans of St Paul (Romans 13:13-14):
“13 Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in rivalry and jealousy. 14 Rather, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the flesh.”
A year later, in 387, he was baptized along with his son and returned to Africa (Colombás, 1974, p.276). However, shortly after, he suffered the loss of his mother and child. He decided to sell all his property except for a family home that he converted into a monastic center. In the year 391, he was ordained as a priest in Hippo Regius (now in Algeria) and subsequently held the position of bishop until his death in 430. During his episcopate, he worked intensively to convert the population to Christianity. The Vandals, who sympathized with Arianism, besieged the city of Hippo where the bishop died in 430 AD (Masoliver 1978: 113).
Augustine of Hippo took the New Testament book of Acts of the Apostles as a model for cenobitic and ecclesiastical life:
42 All the believers were together and had everything in common. 43 With great power the apostles continued to testify to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and much grace was upon them all. 44 There were no needy persons among them. For from time to time each of them sold their possessions and property and distributed the proceeds to anyone in need. 45 Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts, 46 praising God and enjoying the favor of all the people. And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.
Manichaeism and Manual Labor
Manichaeism was a religion that emerged in Central Asia in 242 AD, specifically in the northeastern region of Persia and the western part of Tibet. It was characterized by being a missionary religion with strong influence in various regions of the ancient world. In fact, Alexander of Lycopolis (4th century) referred to Manichaeism as "the new Christianity," which demonstrates its significance during that time (Burkitt, 1922). Manichaeism presented a dualistic view of the world: the spiritual was considered good while the material world was perceived as intrinsically evil. As a consequence, any activity related to the physical realm, including manual labor, was viewed negatively and associated with the corruption of the material world (Burkitt, 1922).
This context explains why Augustine of Hippo had a period of adherence to Manichaeism between 373 and 382 AD. In fact, his knowledge about this religion allowed him to refer to it in his works. The influence of these doctrines on his work is clear in his interpretation of manual labor. While Manichaeism rejected any material activity as corrupt, Christianity, under the Augustinian perspective, reinterprets work as a way of approaching God. In this manner, the bishop developed a theology of manual labor that opposed the dualistic Manichaean view.
In De opere monachorum, Augustine of Hippo defends the idea of physical work in the daily life of monks. However, Manichean monks did not look favorably upon physical work since they believed that monks should dedicate themselves exclusively to spiritual tasks such as prayer and contemplation, and manual labor was not part of these activities. Nevertheless, he argues that physical work is legitimate and necessary for a good Christian life in line with what is found in the Scriptures, particularly in St Paul's writings, who worked as a tentmaker while preaching. Physical work also contributes to living a disciplined and humble life, providing basic needs for the monk. The bishop emphasizes that physical work has a spiritual dimension too, keeping monks occupied and helping them avoid the temptation of idleness.
Conclusions
De opere monachorum is a work addressing the issue of manual labor in monastic life. A debate already present at the beginning of monastic life. We have been able to learn arguments for and against, as well as how Augustine of Hippo was influenced by his environment since no one lives isolated from the world, finding ourselves immersed in a network of diverse influences. Saint Augustine succeeded in convincing but how? This is another matter, but I encourage you to explore the beginnings of monastic life and its challenges. It will not disappoint you.
Bibliography
Burkitt, F. C. (1922). “The Religion of the Manichees”, The Journal of Religion, 2(3), 263-276. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1195142
Colombás, G. M. (1974). The Primitive Monasticism, 2 vols., BAC.
Masoliver, A. (1978). History of Christian Monasticism. I. From the Origins to Saint Benedict, Publicacions de l’abadia de Montserrat.
Saint Augustine. (1954). The Complete Works of Saint Augustine X. Bilingual Edition. Moral Treatises (F. García, L. Cilleruelo, & R. Flórez, Trans., Intro., & Notes). Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos (BAC).
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