The religiousness of ancient pirates: a historiographical analysis

The religiosity of pirates in Antiquity is a novel topic of research that has gained strength in recent years, especially in Spain. It is an underexplored thematic line that may shed new and important light on the subject. To do so, it will be necessary to address the historiographical changes that allowed this line of research to develop before proceeding with its treatment through the most recent contributions. 

Before tackling the religiosity of pirates, we must be aware of the extraordinary evolution that ancient piracy historiography has undergone in recent decades. In 1924, Henry Ormerod published a monograph, Piracy in the Ancient World, based on primary written and epigraphic sources along with a comparative method with modern piracy. However, the way of approaching ancient testimonies was erroneous as it partially assumed the biases that ancient authors had (Souza, 2002, p. 2). As for positive aspects, he explored questions such as geography, frequency of military conflicts and poverty, which progressively led to a multi-causal understanding of the pirate phenomenon (Ormerod, 2012, p. 14). 

Addressing the main challenges

In subsequent decades, the study of ancient piracy suffered a temporal hiatus. We would have to wait until the arrival of a new monograph in 1999, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World by Philip de Souza. This work allowed us to overcome one of the difficulties of our study: its fragmentary nature. The development of ancient piracy historiography is based especially on the publication of articles with different themes, particularly in economic and political matters. Philip de Souza's monograph managed to gather the work of various professionals under a series of innovations such as updating Henry Ormerod's postulates. 

The key point of the work is the reinterpretation of written sources. The study of ancient pirates depends largely on documentary sources produced by different states in the Mediterranean (Souza, 2002, p. 117). Therefore, it is necessary to read between the lines and understand the attributions and biases assigned to pirates based on each author's interests and context. Through this reasoning, specialists have sought two ways of overcoming the scarcity of testimonies: delving into primary written sources or seeking alternative methods. Progressively, we delve into 21st-century research where there is greater maturity and thematic diversification. 

Despite the positive aspects that Philip de Souza's monograph had and continues to have, historiography advanced significantly at the beginning of the 21st century. We find new themes and lines of research that have notably complicated the figure of the ancient pirate. Beyond overcoming the myth of inherent violence or barbaric traits, delving into their insertion within ancient economic and political mechanisms, significant advances were also made in their relationship with magic, religion, or ancient law. For our case, both religion and magic are peripheral themes that have enjoyed some historiographical production in recent years, especially by Spanish authors. 

Approaches to pirate religiosity

Once this content is established, we would need to investigate the relationship between pirates and religion. This is a complex issue since there is no "pirate religion," but rather cults vary according to time and geographical location. When choosing, authors often find a well-justified preference for Cilician piracy. The reason is simple: the number of sources and records is notably superior to other cases. Testimonies from the late Republican period aim to convey an alarming message about this phenomenon as if a plague of pirates had spread across the sea, leading to prolific and controversial legislation aimed at its eradication. On this basis, we can overcome the attributions and biases that fall on pirates, particularly in religious matters. 

Currently, we have few articles addressing the religiosity of pirates in the ancient world. Unfortunately for some and fortunately for others, a significant portion of these articles are the result of Spanish specialists. The most prominent author is Alfonso Álvarez Ossorio with his study on the religious practices of pirates. In second place, we find authors who have made lesser contributions but may be revealing such as Antón Alvar Nuño's (2015) study on magic or their role as agents disseminating eastern cults. In both cases, the main source from which they extract information is primary written sources through reading between the lines and understanding the ancient collective imagination. 

In our first case, Alfonso Álvarez Ossorio (2008, p. 10) points to religious practices as an important element in cohesion among pirate groups. "Within the pirate religious repertoire, we find Greek deities directly related to the way of life of pirates such as Ares or Hermes" (Álvarez Ossorio, 2010, pp. 138-141). However, this connection will be disrupted with the arrival of Roman imperialism and its characteristic syncretism. Alfonso Álvarez Ossorio (2010, p. 144) argues that attacks on sanctuaries could be a religious response or reaction to this phenomenon.

On the other hand, Antón Alvar Nuño (2014, p. 264-265) emphasizes magic as a mechanism to mitigate risks or dangers at sea, including pirates who were often described under the same category as storms, that is, as another natural phenomenon. Mariners used amulets with sufficient prestige or reliability for their bearers to perceive reduced risk.  This type of practice had roots in the East and filtered into the West through Alexander the Great's conquests and reached Roman society between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC (Alvar Nuño, 2014, p. 265). 

Lastly, we find an interesting debate on the introduction of the cult of Mithra in Italy through pirates. There are different perspectives regarding their importance as disseminators since some specialists deny a notable impact or consider them precursors to Mithraism while others suggest it could be a relevant factor. The origin of this question lies in Plutarch's testimony concerning Cilician pirates: 

 «They also performed sacrifices brought from abroad, such as those at Olympia, and celebrated certain secret mysteries, of which the worship of Mithras still survives today, first taught by them» 

Plutarch, 2020, p. 683.

On one hand, we find specialists who do not support the connection established between pirates and a certain eastern deity similar to Mithra. A weak relationship due to the superficiality of the account and Plutarch's context in which Mithraism had evolved significantly (Campos Méndez, 2013, pp. 293-294). On the other hand, we have professionals who seek to establish connections with Pompey's campaigns and the spread of Mithraism in Italy through pirate incursions and Pompey Magnus' benevolent attitude towards them (Rubino, 2006, pp. 915-917). 

Conclusions

Religiosity and pirates promise to be a relevant theme that allows advancing in the study of piracy through new horizons and approaches that can generate debates enriching research. Currently, we can distinguish three key lines: religious practices of pirates, magic, and their role as disseminators. In most cases, Spanish authors are at the forefront of these approaches. At the same time, their contributions are recent, which demonstrates the interest in ancient piracy in the 21st century. 

Bibliography

Alvar Nuño, A. (2014). Pirate risk and magical amulets in the Roman Empire. In A. Alvarez-Ossorio Rivas, E. Ferrer Albelda , and E. García Vargas (Eds.), Piracy and maritime security in the Ancient Mediterranean (pp. 263-272). Universidad de Sevilla.

Alvarez Ossorio, A. (2008). Socioeconomic and cultural study of piracy during the early Roman Empire. [Doctoral Thesis]. Universidad de Sevilla.

Alvarez Ossorio, A. (2010). Some considerations on the religiosity of pirates. Habis: Classical Philology, Ancient History, Classical Archaeology, 41, 137-157.

Campos Méndez, I. (2013). Plutarch and Persian religion: the god Mithra. In G. Santana Henríquez (Ed.), Plutarch and the Arts. XI International Symposium of the Spanish Society (pp. 291-299). Ediciones Clásicas.

Souza, P. (2002). Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge University Press. 

Ormerod, H. (2012). Antiquity Piracy: An Essay on the History of the Mediterranean (1st ed.). Renacimiento.

Plutarch (2020). Lives (1st ed.). Verbum.

Rubino, C. (2006). Pompey Magnus, the Cilician pirates and the introduction of Mithraism in the Roman Empire according to Plutarch. Latomus, 65(4), 915-927.