Almost 160 years after the end of the Second Mexican Empire, the figure of Maximilian I of Mexico continues to spark considerable interest among historians and history enthusiasts. He accepted the Mexican crown in 1864 at Miramar Palace and was executed just three years later by Republican troops under Benito Juárez. But who was Maximilian of Habsburg-Lorraine really? How did a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, brother to Francis Joseph I of Austria, come to occupy the Mexican throne? And most importantly, what political project did he attempt to implement in a country so far from his homeland?
Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg-Lorraine was born on July 6, 1832, in Vienna. He was the second son of Archduke Francis Charles of Austria and Princess Sophie of Bavaria, younger brother to future Emperor Francis Joseph I of Austria and brother-in-law to the famous Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria, better known as Sisi. Maximilian grew up within one of the most powerful dynasties in 19th-century Europe. However, in the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, he occupied a secondary position. The revolutions of 1848 altered his destiny when his uncle, Ferdinand I, abdicated in favor of his elder brother, Francis Joseph. With the arrival of Francis Joseph I, his position improved as this emperor entrusted him with the governance of Lombardy-Venetia territory in 1856.
His first experience in governance lasted until 1859, when the territory was annexed by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia within the context of the Italian unification war. He developed a reformist and relatively liberal policy for the time that included health improvements, public works, and some reduction in tax burdens (Shawcross, 2023, pp. 55-58).
At the same time, across the Atlantic, Mexico was going through one of its most turbulent stages since independence. After Spain's independence in 1821, the country alternated between empires, federal and centralist republics, suffered continuous coups d'état, lost extensive territories to the United States, and endured several foreign interventions. Between 1821 and 1864, more than fifty different governments succeeded each other, reflecting a profound political instability that set the stage for the arrival of the Austrian archduke (Galeana, 2010, pp. 65–70).
But the decisive element that made his arrival possible was the debt Mexico incurred with foreign powers to finance its internal wars, especially the War of Reform (1858-1861). The conflict ended in victory for the liberal faction led by Benito Juárez, who came to power and put an end to the conservative government (Philibert, 2007, pp. 17-24). This debt was claimed by the Second French Empire, ruled by Napoleon III, along with the United Kingdom of Victoria I and Spain under Isabel II through a joint fleet sent to Veracruz in December 1861 (Shawcross, 2023, pp. 68-77).
The Mexican government promised payment, which Britain and Spain accepted by withdrawing their forces while France did not. Napoleon III had other plans for Mexico. In coalition with the conservatives of the country, he initiated an invasion of Mexican territory, although it began with a defeat of French troops in the Siege of Puebla in May 1862, France managed to impose itself by sending another contingent of almost 30,000 soldiers.
With the occupation of the capital on June 10, 1863, Mexican conservatives, with French army support, agreed to establish an imperial monarchy and offer the Mexican crown to Napoleon III's designated candidate: Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Napoleon III, within his policy of imperial expansion, saw Mexico as a gateway to the continent. And taking advantage of the American Civil War, he was offered the perfect opportunity to expand his influence in America and open new markets for France. Maximilian, as mentioned earlier, accepted the position after being convinced of having broad local support, which he himself requested (Shawcross, 2023, pp. 96-99). Mexican conservatives had forged hundreds of letters, endorsements of support and admiration for Maximilian, most of them dubious or outright fraudulent (Hamnett, 2001, pp. 185-193).
This fact was demonstrated when he and his wife, Charlotte of Belgium, arrived in their new country and on the way from Veracruz to Mexico City, this lukewarm initial reception was the first subtle indication that the empire would not have at least a good start. Although it was the Mexican conservatives who brought them to power, Maximilian, being a person with liberal convictions, kept part of Benito Juárez's liberal legislation and expanded it with agrarian measures, land protection, water rights or the creation of Protection Committees for the Needy Classes focused mainly on indigenous laborers (Pani, 1998, pp.581-587).
He also reorganized the territory inspired by French departments and promoted the construction of Mexico's first railway lines with French, British, and even American capital (Cuervo, 2010, pp.94-100). Maximilian attempted to create a modern nation-state as well as engage with his new homeland. This was seen in various visits to different points of the territory controlled by the Second Empire. He learned Spanish and sought to familiarize himself with the history and customs of the country. Even imposing upon himself a system of public audiences on Sundays to personally address the problems of Mexicans (Pani, 1995, pp.439-454).
These measures earned him some popular support, but conservatives rejected him as not being the monarch they expected for the country, and liberals saw him merely as a foreign imposition.
The imperial project began to crumble in 1866 when Napoleon III decided to withdraw French military support from the venture. The end of the American Civil War and the growing weight of Prussia in Europe under Bismarck's leadership forced France to redirect its national priorities. Without this support, the Second Mexican Empire was left at the mercy of Republican troops led by Juárez (Palacios and Pani, 2014, pp.414-418).
The withdrawal became evident between October 1866 and January 1867. This was exploited by Republican forces under Benito Juárez, supported by the United States, to gain territory. Maximilian, becoming more isolated, had to retreat in his ambitions of building a liberal empire and seek support again from conservatives with the aim of maintaining the empire. The progressive deterioration of the military situation led Maximilian to personally take command of the imperial army during the final campaign (Shawcross, 2023, pp. 253-275). Despite this, defeats continued against the liberal army, including his own capture in Querétaro on May 15, 1867. After a trial in that city, he was executed along with Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía at the Hill of Bells on June 19, 1867. Benito Juárez rejected any possibility of pardon (Philibert, 2007, pp. 73-80). His last words were: "May my blood seal the misfortunes of my new homeland!" (Castelot, 2002, pp. 595-596).
In conclusion, although the Second Empire ended defeated, the figure of Maximilian has continued to be a subject of debate. For some, he was an imposed ruler financed and supported by Napoleon III's France. For others, he was a monarch with good intentions who attempted to modernize the country but ultimately became entangled in international interests and divisions within his own nation. His last words reflected the deep bond he developed with Mexico. With his death, one of the most singular political experiences in contemporary Hispanic American history came to an end, giving rise to a historical figure whose memory continues to generate debates. As well as demonstrating that a political project, no matter how ambitious it was, could hardly consolidate itself when dependent on foreign military support and lacking a sufficiently broad social base within its own country.
Bibliography
Álvarez Cuervo, B. (2014). Maximilian I and the Second Mexican Empire. The Historical Reason: Hispanic American Journal of Political and Social Ideas History, 28, 82-116.
Galeana, P. (2010). La dispute for Sovereignty (1821-1876). Colegio de México.
Hamnett, B. R. (2001). A History of Mexico. Cambridge University Press.
Mendoza Philibert, E. (2007). Notable Characters in the History of Mexico: Benito Juárez, Porfirio Díaz, vol. II. Panorama Editorial.
Palacios, G., & Pani, E. (2014). The Power and Blood: War, State and Nation in the 1860s. Colegio de México.
Pani, E. (1995). The state project of Maximilian through court life and public ceremony. Historia Mexicana, 45(2), 423-460.
Pani, E. (1998). "True Cooper figures" or "poor miserable indios"? Maximilian's indigenous policy. Historia Mexicana, 47(3), 571-604.
Shawcross, E. (2023). The Last Emperor of Mexico: The incredible story of the Austrian Archduke who created an empire in the New World. Atico de los Libros.
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