In 1944, the Austrian intellectual Karl Polanyi published The Great Transformation, which would become one of his most well-known works. In this book, the author reflected on the changes that had taken place in contemporary Europe and how these had resulted in the emergence of a new society and a different culture. Polanyi's study also covered other aspects such as criticism of liberalism or changes from an anthropological perspective, but what interests us most about this work is its title. Indeed, it was a great transformation that occurred in Western and Central Europe, but also in other regions like the United States throughout the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, which formed the basis of our current world. But when we talk about "our way of life" or the "transformations" that took place in this century, what do we mean? Very simply: it refers to the simple improvement of material living conditions for the population.
In the space we usually call the "Western world," it is easy to find all kinds of conveniences from when we wake up until we go to bed at night. In this part of the world, the population has full access to drinking water, a wide variety of foods in markets, means of transportation that allow covering great distances quickly, daily hygiene, climate control systems, and much more. But it goes without saying that things were not always like this. Indeed, our current living conditions in the Western world have no parallel in other historical periods. In this article, we will travel to the 17th century - although also to earlier times - to learn about daily life for men and women of Europe at the time, though it could be said that we are also talking about the living conditions of all humanity. We will focus on two key aspects: sustenance and hygiene.
BASIC SUSTENANCE: WATER AND FOOD
Water is undoubtedly an essential element for life and nutrition, as we not only consume it directly but it is also indispensable for food production. Well, something as simple as turning on a tap and having a stable supply of running water was simply a utopia in Modern Europe. At that time, it was necessary to ensure the daily provision of water through wells, rivers, or fountains. Drinking water was scarce, and at times people had to travel long distances to obtain it, with the consequent time investment this entailed, as M. Ángeles Pérez Samper has studied. The scarcity of water was so great that in many cases people consumed wine directly.
The impossibility of accessing water was by no means the only concern for people back then. They also had to worry about their food supply. In fact, finding food constituted their main concern, something that in our days seems almost inconceivable. But the problem with nutrition in the modern centuries did not just lie in quantity but also quality. Food was scarce and often a true privilege, and moreover, most people's diet was extremely poor as it was based almost exclusively on carbohydrates from bread. No wonder one of the great concerns for rulers was to ensure the supply of grain for making bread.
Meat and fish were consumed in minor quantities, and even then, their intake was insufficient to meet the protein requirements of the human body. Thus, people not only suffered from malnutrition when they could not access their daily sustenance but also from poor nutrition due to the repetitive and incomplete nature of their diet. There was little quantity and little quality. The Italian historian Alberto Tenenti explains that meat consumption in Germany fell between the 15th and 17th centuries from 100 to 14 kilograms per person per year. This situation is understandable if we consider that in areas such as Strasbourg or Saxony, the price of meat increased by 250% over a long period spanning from 1400 to 1600. Thus, it was much more common to consume carbohydrates than proteins. If we take into account that these are essential for growth and muscle development, we will understand how their absence led to severe nutritional deficiencies.
HYGIENE
Another aspect that would most surprise us about our ancestors of the Modern Age is related to hygiene and personal cleanliness, not only because of its scarcity or lack of consideration but also due to the set of ideas associated with the concept of "cleanliness" that in our days we would find quite bizarre. The French historian Georges Vigarello uses the term "dry cleaning" to refer to the hygienic practices in place since the Middle Ages, centered on clothing cleanliness and the almost complete absence of water for washing. Since the Middle Ages, there was also a trend towards closing public baths as they were considered sinful places where it was easy to fall into carnal pleasures. Renaissance science believed that water made the body vulnerable by opening pores leading to an imbalance in the so-called "humoral balance" according to Galenic medicine and making skin more permeable to plague and diseases in general. And all this even in the 18th century, when measures began to be taken aimed at preserving personal and collective hygiene.
These beliefs were not exclusive to the lower classes or disadvantaged groups in society but rather the opposite. The ideas we have seen were shared by great thinkers and intellectuals of the Modern Age. A good example is the renowned thinker Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), who in his treatise De civilitate morum puerilium libellus ("On Civility in Manners for Children"), recommended washing one's face, mouth, and hands with water. Taking a full bath was something exceptional. Historian M. Ángeles Ortego attributes bathing almost medicinal connotations since it was considered that healthy people did not need to take them.
Continuing with childhood, even in the 18th century when the first measures of hygiene and public health were taken, attitudes towards cleanliness remained highly unhygienic. Maria Antónia Lopes tells us that immediately after birth, children in Portugal were wrapped in bands of cloth with their limbs stretched out to grow straight. However, this custom brought more problems than benefits. Their tight wrapping meant they did not change clothes often, so the excrement and urine they produced accumulated along with various parasites. The author also notes that although the upper classes had abandoned these practices as harmful, it was not the same for lower-income groups who considered lice to extract "bad blood" and believed urine had curative properties among other beliefs.
CONCLUSIONS
From all that we have seen, it can be deduced that living conditions in the modern centuries were very different from today's. They were so different that survival would likely be difficult for us in such a different world. Probably the stench, dirtiness, and hunger would be some of the aspects that would most catch our attention, but not the only ones. For a long time, this situation we now consider unhealthy was maintained thanks to specific ideas and conceptions about life very much unrelated to our current view of "well-being." With the arrival of the 18th century and the emergence of new ideas on well-being and personal and collective health care, things would change dramatically, but that is another story...
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lopes, M.A. (2011). Birth and Survival: The Dangerous Childhood in Portugal during the 18th and 19th Centuries. In F. Núñez Roldán, (coord.), Childhood in Spain and Portugal. XVI-XIX Centuries (43-68), Madrid: Sílex.
Ortego Agustín M. A. (2009). Discourses and Practices on the Body and Hygiene in the Modern Age. In G. A. Franco Rubio (coord.), Things of Life: Everyday Experiences in Modern Spain (67-92). Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
Pérez Samper, M. A. (2011). Daily Life. In A. Floristán Imízcoz (coord.), History of Spain in the Modern Age (79-102). Barcelona: Ariel.
Tenenti, A. (2011). The Modern Age (XVI-XVIII). Barcelona: Crítica.
Vigarello, G. (1995). Clean and Dirty: Body Hygiene from the Middle Ages to Today. Madrid: Alianza.
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