We have to go back to historically pagan societies such as those of Egypt, Greece, and Rome to approach the origins of what we now know as carnivals. Thus, this manifestation is related to the worship of Isis practiced in Egypt, Dionysian rites in the Greek world or Roman festivals like the Bacchanalia, Lupercalia, or Saturnalia, with the latter being the most accepted theory. It's interesting to see how even today these deities are very present in carnival representations, as can be seen in the comparsa Los Borracheras, presented at the Official Carnival Group Contest (COAC) of Cádiz in 2023, whose type embodies Bacchus.
Given the secular nature that therefore contained the Carnival, during the Middle Ages both civil and ecclesiastical authorities made efforts to link the festival with Christian religion, for example, by aligning carnival rituals with saints' festivals. This is evident in the etymology itself, as "carnival" would come from Latin carne levare (Flores Martos, 2001, 30), or from the Latin-Mozarabic carnestolendas, both referring to "taking away meat." This should be understood in a double sense: on one hand, the fasting of meat as literally extracted, and on the other, sexual abstinence, two important aspects during the period of reflection that Lent entails in Christianity. Since carnival rituals take place before Lent, the word "carnival" would be understood as a "warning" or reminder of its proximity. Another term used to name carnivals, though perhaps less known, is "antruejo," which derives from the Latin introitus, meaning "entrance," that is, entrance into Lent (Merino Quijano, 2014).
Despite attempts at sacralization, carnival has continued to maintain a character predominantly secular in which gluttony and lust are very present. For this reason, during the Middle Ages it was common for these celebrations to be referred to as "Festivals of Fools" (Prat i Carós, 1993, 286).
The relationship between Carnival and Lent translates into the confrontation of two periods in which social activities, festivals, and behaviors change completely. Following a chronological order, first comes Carnival, which represents an era of permissiveness and moral and ethical freedom, where rules and established order are broken. Immediately after, Lent begins, a period of reflection and fasting for Christianity that constitutes a return to traditional values. In summary, it is a contrast between two characters: Don Carnal and Doña Cuaresma (Flores Martos, 2001). This confrontation has been represented in art on various occasions, as we can see in literature with The Book of Good Love, by the Archpriest of Hita, in its passage "Of the fight that Don Carnival had with Lent” (1067-1127); or in painting with Pieter Brueghel the Elder's work (Figure 1), where on the right are shown Christian religious values and to the left, popular customs and relaxed morals typical of carnival dates.
If we look more closely at Brueghel's work, in the lower part of it we find two opposing processions, like a caricature of a medieval knightly tournament, with the main characters leading. As mentioned earlier, on the left is Don Carnal, represented as a fat male figure wearing a cake on his head and sitting on a barrel of wine while directing forward what looks like a lance with pieces of meat (chicken, pig's head) inserted into it. Following him is his entourage, consisting of several improvised musicians dressed in bright colors; near him we also see other elements such as cards that remind us of chance. On the right appears Doña Cuaresma, depicted as an old woman carrying and surrounded by typical foods for fasting periods like fish, which she faces with a shovel as a weapon, along with bread, pretzels, mussels or honey that can be extracted from the hive on her head. Both Doña Cuaresma and the characters dragging the surface on which she sits wear outfits imitating religious habits.
Traditions generally take on a particular character in some cases and adopt proper names. This happens, for example, with the Carnival of Cádiz, declared Cultural Interest Property since 2019 and one of the most important in Spain, where the protagonists are the god Momo and the Witch Piti (Figure 2). From an iconographic point of view, we can establish relationships with Don Carnal and Doña Cuaresma, respectively. In both cases these two characters represent the opposition between the period of excesses and role reversal typical of Carnival and the time of reflection that Lent entails. The first one, god Momo, is represented as a male character, mischievous and mocking, characterized by small horns coming out of his head or upper forehead which in some cases can be interpreted as peaks of a jester's hat. On the other hand, Witch Piti usually appears depicted as an old woman with a witch-like appearance.
The duality Don Carnal – Doña Cuaresma, incarnated in its various forms, is not the only one that occurs during Carnival. It can also be understood as a ritual marking the change of season, so that carnival activities would represent an invocation of Spring, associated with life, vitality, fertility and fecundity, against Winter, associated with dormancy and death. Thus, Carnival becomes an "Allegory of the spirit of abundance" embodying Spring, and it is endowed with connotations of a "sacred revitalizer."
This breaking away from usual norms that occurs during Carnival can seem like a symbol of empowerment for the people, especially for lower or less favored classes, since it represents a revolution against moral, social and even economic order. The consequences, however, are not decisive nor permanent but rather reduce to changes within an established period of time which is often organized and promoted by authorities (and upper classes) as an interested manifestation of ostentation and prestige. We would therefore be facing a "authorized transgression" more than real freedom. In this way, it could even be said that the established order is reinforced through cyclical periods of permissiveness (relaxation for the people).
Bibliography
ARÉVALO, Javier M. (2012). “The heritage as collective representation: the intangibility of cultural goods,” Andes, 23.
ARÉVALO, J. M. (2009). “Carnivals as intangible cultural goods. Space and time for ritual,” Gazeta de Antropología, 25(2), article 49. DOI: 10.30827/Digibug.6906
BAJTIN, Mijail (1998). Popular Culture in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Madrid: Alianza.
CARO BAROJA, Julio (1965). Carnival: (historical-cultural analysis). Madrid: Taurus.
FLORES MARTOS, J. A. (2001). “A continent of Carnival: critical ethnography of American Carnivals,” Anales del Museo de América, 9, 29-58.
MERINO QUIJANO, F. J. (2014). “The Popular Carnival, rituals and ceremonies in Extremadura lands,” Revista de historia, 1, 34-64.
PRAT I CARÓS, J. (1993). “Carnival and its rituals: some anthropological readings,” Themes of Aragonese Anthropology, 4, 278-296.
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